Global warming Essay Example for Free

Global warming Essay Global warming is the process by which several gases known ‘green-house gases’ (such as carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, etc) are accumulating in the earth’s environment (as a result of human activity and pollution) and are trapping the sun’s energy resulting in a rise in the planet’s temperature. Some of the largest sources of green house gases include power plants, automobiles, etc. The hypothesis statement in this case is â€Å"Carbon Dioxide is not the only the largest contributor to Global warming, it is in fact the only contributor†. A recent study conducted By the US-DoE in the year 2000 clearly suggests that about 99. 5 % of the gases that cause global warming is carbon dioxide (NRDC, 2007, Eco Bridge, 2008, University of California, 2002). Carbon dioxide is emitted from several human activities. About 40 % of the carbon dioxide emitted in the US is from power-plants that emit the gas from burning coal. Even when LPG and natural gas is burnt, it produces huge quantities of carbon dioxide that contribute towards global warming. About 33% of the carbon dioxide is produced from vehicular emission. Vehicles that have poor mileage contribute larger quantities of carbon dioxide that ultimately result in global warming. About 3. 5 % of the carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere is from aero planes. The upper layers of the atmosphere are damaged as a result of air traffic. From building and domestic use, about 12 % of the total carbon dioxide content is contributed (NRDC, 2007, Eco Bridge, 2008, University of California, 2002). The other gases that can contribute towards global warming is methane (0. 47 %), nitrous oxide (less than 0. 1 %), water vapor and CFC’s (less than 0. 01 %). In actual fact, water vapor contributes towards 99. 99 % of the global warming. However, release of water vapor into the environment is by a natural phenomenon and hence it cannot be considered as a result of human activity. Several studies have demonstrated that effect of water vapor is increased by the presence of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Another group of thinking is that water vapor ultimately results in cloud formation, resulting of reflecting back the energy waves of the sun into the atmosphere. Besides, water vapor present in the atmosphere is released back onto the ground, thus helping to cool down the planet (NRDC, 2007, Eco Bridge, 2008, University of California, 2002, Hieb, 2003 University of California, 2002). Since the time of James Watt, the levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has been rising. IN the US, an average the per capita emission of carbon is about 5 tons every year per head (one of the highest) and in Sweden it is about 2 tons (One of the lowest). Carbon dioxide molecules trap the heat rays that are radiating from the atmosphere and cause and increase in the air temperature. In cities and in areas having high levels of carbon dioxide at the ground level, it is found that the air temperature is comparatively higher. Whereas in forests, the air temperature is lower as the carbon dioxide is converted to oxygen. Over the last 100 years the temperature of the earth has risen by about 1. 5 to 5 degrees. The concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is increased from below 280 ppm to above 360 ppm (Hieb, 2003 University of California, 2002). By just doubling the levels of carbon dioxide in the air, the temperature has increased significantly. The levels of methane and other green house gases have fairly remained constant over the years, but global warming is becoming even more severe. Hence, it can be considered that carbon dioxide is not just the largest contribute to global warming; it may as well as be considered the only contributor (University of California, 2002). References: Eco Bridge. â€Å"Causes of Global Warming. † 2008. Eco Bridge. 6 Apr.2008. http://www. ecobridge. org/content/g_cse. htm Monte Hieb. â€Å"Water Vapor Rules the Greenhouse System. † 2003. Geo Craft. 6 Apr. 2008. http://www. geocraft. com/WVFossils/greenhouse_data. html Natural Resources Defense Council. â€Å"Global Warming Basics. † 2007. NRDC. 6 Apr. 2008. http://www. nrdc. org/globalWarming/f101. asp University of California. â€Å"GLOBAL WARMING: The Rise of CO2 Warming. † 2002. University of California. 6 Apr. 2008. http://earthguide. ucsd. edu/globalchange/global_warming/03. html

Advantages and Disadvantages of Effective Budget Control

Advantages and Disadvantages of Effective Budget Control This paper will look at what is required of an effective budgetary control mechanism and try to assess the advantages and disadvantages of using a system imposed from above, or externally, over a decentralized system controlled by lower level management as task level. Using an empirical case study from the international banking sector, it will be shown that too much managerial autonomy can lead to disaster not just for the manager concerned but also for the whole organization. In contrast the role of the World Bank and International Monetary Fund in imposing nation-state loan budgets will be critiqued to highlight the potential flaws of centralizing and dominating budget control management. Effective budgetary controlHenderson (2003) notes that regardless of the situation or workplace, in order to be effective it is crucial that budgetary control systems: Account for money received and spent Make sure that the organizations financial policies are adhered to Ensure that money is not wasted Assist managers to run, and develop, services or departments These controls have developed from the need to account for large sums of money but are equally applicable to any budgetary situation. However, from a managerial perspective they have often been criticised for being insensitive and restrictive at the lower levels of management. As the number of stakeholders increases so does the need to be fully accountable and therefore more controls are also needed. This is particularly noticeable in the public sector National Health Service. Here lower level management are extremely subservient to imposed and tight budgeting restrictions from a distantly senior level. This is arguably a result of the need to satisfy a multitude of stakeholder interests and a concern that empowering lower management with the autonomy to control their own budgets would fail to include the number of interested parties from politicians to doctors and patients. With organisations as complex as the NHS whether public or private sector – It is safer and easier to p lan and control from above using imposed budget control methods. Politically imposed budgeting is preferably because senior managers, directors, or institutions who set the budgets are arguably best placed to recognise the wider implications of budgeting decisions but, according to Marginson (1999), financially imposed budget controls make sense too. Financial losses, which can occur for such damaging reasons as incompetence, error, negligence or fraud, are most likely to be minimised, or avoided altogether, by well constructed control systems. Imposed budgets benefit from the experience, acquired knowledge and full backing of senior management. They arguably encourage a sense of confidence in lower level management to do their job whilst reducing the massive levels of stress that come with having to create and manage your own budget. Another advantage of imposed budgeting is that it encourages regular monitoring, reporting, progress reports and ultimately improvements in the budgetary system. This enables problems to be uncovered and dealt with quickly and efficiently. Henderson (2003) states that it is advantageous to review arrangements occasionally. Even if procedures within your work area operate well, you should ensure that the budgetary responsibilities of staff at all levels are clear and understood by everyone. It would be unfortunate if problems arise because people do not know the extent or limit of their responsibilities (p33). Autonomous managers are arguably less likely to self-review their processes if they are deemed to be working well. Whereas senior management may be able to employ the use of an external or dedicated process-auditing team, lower level management are unlikely to have the resources or inclination to do the same especially if a process is deemed to be largely successful and given that any negative results will reflect directly and negatively on their managerial budgeting ability. There are further problems with lower level management dictating their own budget. As a budget manager, you are in charge of producing an annual cash flow forecast detailing accurately all of your income and expenditures. Budget managers are also expected to collect a range of information throughout each year, both financial and non-financial, to supplement their cash flow predictions and help better manage their finances. Finally they are then expected to critically compare the planned figures and the actual revenues and expenditures that occurred and act to ensure that the inflows and outflows of cash are within budget limits. In short, managers who are given control over their own budgets are required to be financially adept. Often, even if the manager is financially confident, proof of budgetary ability will only be learned from success or failure by which time it may be too late to rectify any problems. Marginson (1999) suggests that the concept of self-managing a budget at all levels through an organization is essentially flawed. If a manager has responsibility for a budget they he argues should not be expected to regulate and monitor is on their own. Ideally a system would be in place to bring any relevant or potentially important information to the managers attention. The flaw of any budgeting system that encourages managerial autonomy is that, eventually, in the case of poor performance a reporting system will eventually alert senior management to the crisis. Inevitably, senior manage will then try to rectify the situation costing time, resources and money. This often lengthy process would almost certainly be entirely avoided if senior management imposed budgetary control measures tightly from the top. A potential hazard in using imposed budgetary controls Imposing financial authority from the top-down may be one method of ensuring that the commands of senior management (or external bodies such a the Government) are carried out but this strict system of financial control is not necessarily the most productive method of financial management. The most commonly cited problem with a top-down method of strict budgetary control is the message that it permeates down the hierarchy. This invariably is translated as a lack of trust in the ability of lower-level and middle-management from those above them. As Benston (1963) explains: Decentralization contributes to effective motivation. The firm’s accounting system that facilitates decentralization hence has an indirect but important impact on motivation. The direct use of accounting reports, such as budgets, for motivation can result in reduced performance, if the budget is imposed on the department manager. (p347) The financial advantages of imposing budgetary control – such as less risk of money being wasted, tighter adherence to company financial polity etc are potentially offset by the negative effects on motivation (and therefore productivity and profitability) such a gesture could make.According to Petrova (2004), autonomy and motivation are commonly considered to be extremely closely associated to one another. Given the value of a motivated workforce, the use of imposed budgets could be limiting the success of the business as well as its employees. Case Study:  Too much managerial autonomy – Nick Leeson and banking crises Over the last two decades crises the banking worldwide and the subsequent global financial instability they have invariably caused have occurred with alarming regularity and always at a huge, often crippling, cost. According to estimates by the International Monetary Fund, more than a dozen banking crises in the past 15 years have cost the countries afflicted 10% or more of their gross domestic product (Economist, 2003). Although the majority of banking collapses seem to occur in the less developed and therefore poorer nations of the world, rich countries are also susceptible, as Japan demonstrated before the world in the 1990s. The blame is frequently – and correctly – laid on macroeconomic policy: an unsustainable exchange rate has no doubt often exacerbated problems but it is poor budgetary control that has been at the root of the majority of banking crises in recent times.. It is not just the banks who are to blame for this. Imposed budgets do not necessarily have to come from within the organisation. Bank regulators, too, should have done, and should do, more to help avoid these crises. The Basel Accord is the main external control that is used to protect the financial safety of banks. The Accord established a set of international rules that limit banks exposure to risk by requiring that their capital must at least equal a minimum proportion of their assets (Economist, 2003). This proportion is weighted by a calculated risk based on the circumstances of each individual bank. The Basel Accord is effectively the banking industries version of imposed budgeting. The external regulator oversees the business of the banks to ensure that they do not assume too much autonomy. (Economist, 2003) The case of Nick Leeson and the collapse of Barings Banks provides a hugely unlikely yet extremely note-worthy case to act as a warning of what can happen to companies that do not impose strict financial controls on their management. As Van der Stede (2000) warns, this is especially pertinent for companies concerned with achieving tangible results as they are more likely to have managers with a stronger focus on business matters that affect the short-term results (p609) and are therefore more likely to take poorly calculated risks with company money. In the Leeson case the bank were found to be guilty of allowing an unprecedented degree of managerial influence in the trading budget. This eventually allowed just a single employee Leeson to accumulate debts of over  £1.3 billion and bankrupt one of the worlds oldest banks. In a fatal mistake, the bank allowed Leeson to remain Chief Trader while being responsible for settling his trades, a job that is usually split. This had made it much simpler for him to hide his losses. (BBC, 2002). If any case highlights the dangers of allowing managers unbridled participation in budgetary control, the Lesson case is it. Problems with imposed budgets a global political perspective. The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund control the flow of finances and effectively national budgets in every country across the globe. Their role is to promote stable growth in a bid to increase the wealth of citizens across the globe. However, as recently as April 2005, hundreds of members of parliaments around the world are calling on these two institutions lenders of billions of dollars every year, – to renege many of the numerous conditions they impose on borrowing countries in order to secure their loans. These conditions, they say, are eroding national sovereignty and impeding long-term economic planning necessary to achieve positive and sustained growth. Instead, global politicians, most vocally from the less developing countries who are the primary victims of the current restrictive loan scheme, are calling for the World Bank and IMF to let local legislators have the final say in domestic economic policies. Typical IMF conditions imposed on lending nations include devaluation of local currencies, deregulation of state-owned industry, tight public spending caps, liberalisation of trade and exchange controls, withdrawal of subsidies, and more protections for the private sector and multinational companies (Mekay, 2005). Beyond this critics argue that both institutions have been guilty of providing inaccurate and detrimental economic advice that has only helped to compound the economic rigidities created by the loans causing delayed debt relief, increased poverty and undermined democracy, prompting demonstrations and street protests in many countries (Mekay, 2005). According to the petition, in 2003, the former Soviet state of Georgia’s budget deficit exceeded its IMF-set limit. The Fund then asked Georgia to revise its budget for that year, but the parliament refused to pass it. Rather than accepting this decision, the IMF allowed its lending programme with Georgia to expire in retaliation. This led to threats from the World Bank that it, too, would pull the plug on existing projects. (Mekay, 2005) The IMF and World Bank reflect a system of imposed budgeting that is arguably more detrimental than it is effective. Imposed budgets must be careful to provide some degree of flexibility and maneuverability if they are not to cause resentment and productivity problems. This is particularly the case if budgets are being set and imposed from external sources. On a local or company scale there are further problems with the use of imposed budgeting in trying to link financial failures with those responsible for them. It is important to be able to link levels of activity, the consumption of resources and the achievement of targets with the managers primarily responsible for making decisions about these issues (Henderson, p33). If budgets are imposed from above, it is potentially difficult to identify the source of budgetary failure. If managers are autonomous, any budgetary failure is attributed directly to them. This arguably generates stricter budgetary discipline, responsibility and better management. Unless you have the authority to control financial resources, you cannot effectively manage the services for which you are responsible (Henderson, p23). Conclusion Henderson (2003) argued that successful budgetary control resulted in; being able to account for money received and spent, making sure that the organisations financial policies are adhered to, ensuring that money is not wasted, and assisted managers to run, and develop, services or departments. There is no single correct way of managing budgets but from the evidence presented above it is arguable that imposing a set of budget controls is a more effective method of safeguarding company finances. Certainly this method guarantees that company polices are adhered to and money is accounted and, if employees and managers are motivated, imposed budgets do not necessarily detract from department development or cause money to be wasted. It is the assumption that motivation is sapped by reducing autonomy that is the major criticism of imposed budgeting but this is little proof that this is the case. Petrova (2004) writes in her article on motivation and autonomy that motivated employees may gain more from autonomy but autonomy in itself is not a guaranteed method of increasing employee motivation. In addition, Petrova concludes that the likely benefits for increasing autonomy for already motivated employees are unlikely to be returned in financial gains but rather in changes in leadership styles and organizational structure. Given that the foremost concern of budgeting is to secure the financial future of the company, rejecting imposed budgeting on account of its effect on organizational structure and leadership style arguably inappropriate. Bibliography Mekey, E (2005); MPs demand more budgetary control from IMF and World Bank; Finance Customwire, Public Agenda/All Africa Global Media Economist (2003); Guiding the pack; Vol 368, Issue 8334 Henderson, Prof. E (2003); Budgeting Part Two; Nurse Management Vol 10, Issue 2, p32-37 Van der Stede, W (2000); The relationship between two consequences of budgetary controls: budgetary slack creation and managerial short-term orientation; Accounting, Organisation Society; Vol 25, Issue 8, p609-623 Marginson, D.E.W (1999); Beyond the budgetary control system: towards a two-tiered process of management control; Management Accounting Research; Vol 10, Issue 3, p203-231 Benston, G.J (1963); Accounting Review; Vol 38, Issue 2; p347-354 Petrova, K (2004); Does Motivation trigger Autonomy, or Vice-Versa?; Econometrics of Labour Demand; VXXXVIII International Conference Applied Econometrics Association; www.aea.fed-eco.org 10/05/05 BBC News Website (2002); Nick Leeson and Barings Bank; Crimewatch Case Closed; www.bbe.co.uk/crime – 10/05/05

Should Plea Bargaining be Abolished? Essay -- Pros and Cons of Plea Ba

Being a citizen of the United States comes with advantages that no other country can match. We are granted rights and privileges just for being born within our borders. Others can also gain these rights by adopting our way of life and swearing to uphold its values. Being a citizen or not, we are expected to obey laws that the U.S. Government has put in place to maintain order and balance. When we don’t obey these laws the government has the right to punish us. Luckily for us, our Bill of Rights has even granted us rights until proven guilty. It gives us rights to a fair and speedy trial as well as the right to representation during trial. So many rights and procedures have come about since the birth of our nation. We are constantly making new rules to help uphold the old rules and deciding if the old rules still apply. One practice that has been used during trial has no mention in the Bill of Rights, but has been held as constitutional is plea-bargaining.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The plea bargain was a tool rarely used before the 19th century in prosecution. â€Å"In America, it can be traced almost to the very emergence of public prosecution, although not exclusive to the U.S., developed earlier and more broadly here than most places.† Plea-bargaining was limited because judges controlled most sentencing. Judges did not appreciate the workload relief until personal injury cases skyrocketed during the industrial era.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A plea bargain can be defined as, â€Å"a negotiation between the defendant and his attorney on one side and the prosecutor on the other, in which the defendant agrees to plead â€Å"guilty† or â€Å"no contest† to some crimes, in return for reduction of the severity of the charges, dismissal of some of the charges, the prosecutor’s willingness to recommend a particular sentence or some other benefit to the defendant. Sometimes one element of the bargain is that the defendant reveal information such as location of stolen goods, names of others participating in the crime or admission of other crimes. The judge must agree to the result of the plea bargain before accepting the plea. If he does not, then the bargain is cancelled.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One could wonder why plea bargains are even made. One reason would be that criminal courts are becoming clogged and overcrowded. Going through the proper procedure and processes that we are granted takes time. Trials can take anywhere from days to... ...caseloads, and more often than most realize they may plea-bargain a case that in fact should be prosecuted. I have no intentions of trying to judge their actions, simply because I truly appreciate the position they are in.† Bibliography ABA Division for Public Education: Steps in a Trial: Plea Bargaining. Sept. 25, 2004 http://www.abanet.org/publiced/courts/pleabargaining.html CNN.com - Ashcroft's new charging, plea bargaining, and sentencing Oct. 3, 2003 http://www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/10/03/findlaw.analysis.lazarus.ashcroft/ Defendants' Incentives for Accepting Plea Bargains. Sept. 25, 2004 http://www.nolo.com/lawcenter/ency/article. Ellis, Michael. â€Å"Message no. 5921.† Sept. 11, 2004 http://www.saintleodl.eduprise.com Plea Bargain. Sept. 25, 2004 http://dictionary.law.com/definition2. Plea Bargaining Sept. 29, 2002. http://www.truthinjustice.org/bargaining.htm Plea Bargaining: An Unconstitutional Delegation of Judicial Power. Sept. 25, 2004 http://www.lawmall.com/pleabarg/ Plea Bargaining Nov 24, 1992 http://www.bronxda.net/fcrime/plea.htm Plea Bargains: Why and When They're Made . Sept. 25, 2004 http://www.nolo.com/lawcenter/ency/article

The Tragedy of Child Abuse and Neglect Essay -- Violence Against Child

Child abuse has been defined as, any intentional act that results in physical or emotional harm to a child. This could cover any behavior from assault, to neglect, to molestation. (Encarta 1) In 1995, a study was done by the National Center on Child Abuse & Neglect. They concluded that in the United States alone, approximately 3 million children are victims of some sort of maltreatment each year. This means that an unimaginable amount of our county’s adolescents are being seriously mistreated, and the numbers are rising steadily. While the specific definition of child abuse may differ from state to state, the effects unfortunately do not. Physical maltreatment, neglect and sexual abuse create immediate problems for children, as well as long term damage. Some common effects on sufferers of abuse include, a lowered sense of self worth, an inability to relate to others, short attention span and often they develop learning disorders. More detrimental cases can develop severe de pression or anxiety, schizophrenia, violent behavior and an increased risk of suicide. (Encarta 3) In some cases, abused children learn how to cope with their experiences and grow to healthy adults, but most are not that lucky. Most victims of abuse are forced to deal with the results for their entire lives. Physical abuse is one of the most common forms of child maltreatment. It can begin as soon as conception and includes any deliberate act of violence that is meant to injure or kill a child. (Encarta 1) Over 500,000 children are physically harmed each year. In 1991, 25% of American adults admitted to being beat by a parent or a caretaker in their youth and unfortunately the numbers have increased since then. (Shepard 305) ... ...ividual parent. In conclusion, Child abuse, without a doubt, causes permanent damage to the life of the victim. Whether it’s physical, sexual or neglect, the after effects will haunt them, and very possibly their future family as well. Child psychiatrist, B.F. Steele stated, â€Å"†¦we do believe that how we bring up out children has a most profound effect upon how our society is behaving and how we deal with each other as human beings.† (Kakar 6) This is an excellent point. If parents do not care for their children and show them the ways of life, how could they expect them to know any better, and more importantly, how could they expect them to pass on the knowledge to their own children? Parents, more than anyone, hold the key to shaping the ideals and minds of their children†¦ and until society gets that key fixed, the problems of child abuse will always remains.

Private Education vs Public Education Essay -- essays papers

Private Education vs Public Education Public Education v/s Private Education A person’s education is one of the most important factors in determining whether or not they will become a productive member of society. That is why when considering an education the quality of the education is almost as important as the education itself. So when private schools came into the picture the debate then began between public and private schools. Facing the technological revolution that we are going through without a good quality education a person will be left behind. Even though public and private schools are separate institutions they have to follow certain guidelines so there are a lot of similarities between the two. Such as, both school systems have the intentions of giving their students the best education within their means. Both have educated professionals that have decided to devote the rest of their careers to furthering the education of our youth. They each have set up rules hoping to keep it a positive learning environment. They both use standardized testing as a tool to evaluate the progress of their students. They can also access the weaknesses from these tests to improve the curriculum that they have composed. They also have clubs like volunteer groups that help out people in their surrounding community. There are also student governments where students elect students to improve upon the learning environment in which they are. Schools also have...

The Role of Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility in Business Management

INTRODUCTION It is important to note that business ethics and CSR go hand in hand. In order to understand CSR, one must also understand ethics. Also, a socially responsible firm should also be an ethical firm and an ethical firm should also be a socially responsible firm. However, one might wonder as to why business ethics and CSR receive so much importance. Researchers are making it increasingly clear that the two concepts are essential for long term sustainability of an organisation. In today’s highly competitive business environment, business ethics and CSR are no more an option but a necessary practice activity for all organisations. Therefore, business ethics and CSR continue to be important to organisations and strong ethical value shall take a organisation a long way forward. 2. 1 INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS ETHICS * 2. *1. 1 DEFINITION OF BUSINESS ETHICS Definitions of ethics abound. These include among others: The discipline dealing with what is good and bad and right and wrong or with moral duty and obligation (Hurn, 2008). Hurn (2008) testifies that ethics is also considered as the study of â€Å"human duty in its wider sense†, underlining the common thread of the recognition of obligation and acceptance of responsibility for how one's actions would impact on other people. However, Seital (2001) as cited by (Papasolomou-Doukakis et al. , 2005) defines ethics as the values that guide a person, organization, or society and the differences between right and wrong, fairness and unfairness, honesty and dishonesty. From another point of view Sutherland and Canwell (1997) as cited by (Papasolomou-Doukakis et al. , 2005) define ethics as â€Å" a particular code of behaviour, which to most people is considered to be a morally correct approach†. Cutlip et al. (2001) propose that an individual’s conduct is not only measured against ones conscious but also against some norm of acceptability that has been determined by the society, the profession or the organisation, as cited by (Papasolomou-Doukakis et al. , 2005). It is generally agreed that ethical principles are devised mainly from the undamental beliefs and value systems developed within a culture, such as religious beliefs, traditions, importance of the family structure, national identity and cohesion (Hurn, 2008). From my understanding, ethics attempts to tell us what is and what is not morally acceptable within a particular society or culture and how people ought to behave towards each other in various contexts, including busine ss. According to Trezise (1996), Business ethics tries to answer the question: â€Å"What is the role and function of business in society†? In doing so it explores the difference between ethical values in the private, economic and political spheres of human activity, and does this by borrowing eclectically from law, philosophy, economics, politics, history and psychology. However, Hurn (2008) believes that Business ethics, therefore, can be defined as the application of moral and ethical considerations in a business setting. Furthermore, Nisberg (1988) as cited by (Kilcullen and Kooistra, 1999) defines business ethics as â€Å"as a set of principles that guides business practices to reflect a concern for society as a whole while pursuing profits†. text:list-item} There are mainly three types of Business Ethics which would affect the organisation in one way or the other. The different types of ethics, each bringing a different outcome to an organisation is such as: Social ethics: an approach that came from Greek society and is based on the Greeks’ idea of basic rules for civilized living, but which is differ ent from one group or society to another. In other words, organization A may have different ethics to organization B by virtue of a different set of values and/or principles (Orme and Ashton, 2008). In short, it is likely to be based on a firm’s beliefs about the integrity and quality of the information provided. But the starting points for its ethical stances differ, according to a firm’s particular values or principles. These differences in approach are valuable in differentiating a particular company from its competitors in a difficult marketplace. Transcendental ethics: rely on the absolute concept of right and wrong and a sense of justice, which is applied equally regardless of any social, geographical or cultural restriction. The author claims that it is our view that organizations are moving towards this particular understanding of ethics, and that it represents the next phase of evolution for companies across the world. It involves taking some unpopular decisions that ultimately will have beneficial results in the long term. It relies on leaders being able to operate ethically (Orme and Ashton, 2008). 2. 1. 3 IMPORTANCE OF BUSINESS ETHICS Fisher (2003), states that the main reason for businesses to do the right thing is that the readers believe that good ethics is good for the bottom line. The workplace is a collection of different cultures that differs in their ethical behaviour. Therefore, organisations cannot afford to ignore ethics. Indeed ethics has been added to the corporate value of many organisations (Orme and Ashton, 2003). Business ethics helps generate trust between an organisation and its stakeholders (Holme, 2008). For example, while looking for a supplier, an organisation would rather work with one that has clear ethical values rather than a supplier who is known to be unethical. Therefore, the higher the level of trust with a supplier, the better the relationship hence the better the business. When a problem arises, that is when trust build up over a period of time really pays off . 2. 1. 4 BARRIERS OF BUSINESS ETHICS There are some areas of ethical dilemma which organisation will encounter during the practice of Business Ethics. The two main barriers an organisation may encounter are: Bribery and corruption Counterfeiting According to Hurn (2008), corruption is intrinsically immoral and at times downright criminal, causing harm to the economy, public life and individuals, and, if accepted, may encourage organized crime. Corruption can include: attempts to secure government or other contracts by bribery; payments because of extortion, blackmail and protection; facilitating government services that companies are entitled to receive but whose provision is delayed by excessive bureaucracy; and price-fixing. As a result of the spotlight on bribery and corruption, many companies have designed their own code of ethics. Their development has been strongly endorsed by K. Rushton, the Director of the London-based Institute of Business Ethics, as â€Å"a code of ethics underpins the values of any business. Without it a corporation will have no moral compass† (Hurn 2008). As confirmed by Hurn (2008), counterfeiting or the production of fake goods, which is the result of the theft of intellectual property, is another area of ethical concern in business. It can have the following effects: stealing jobs and revenue from legitimate producers; flooding the market with cheap counterfeit goods; potential health hazards for customers, e. g. fake pharmaceutical products, cigarettes, unsafe manufactured goods, e. g. tyres, toys and electrical goods.. With the barriers above, respect for the genuine brand drops when a large numbers of fakes are produced which leads to low performance by the organization. 2. 2 INTRODUCTION TO CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY Stewardship CSR – obligation towards those in need or affected by their company’s action Corroll (2001) as cited by Lantos, (2002) states that economic responsibilities includes being profitable for shareholders, while proving economic benefits to other corporate stakeholders, such as fair-paying jobs for employees and good quality, fairly-priced products for customers. Legal responsibilities involve conducting business legally. Ethical responsibilities go beyond the law by avoiding harm or social injury; respecting people’s moral rights; and doing what is right, just, fair (Smith and Quelch, 1993) as cited by (Lantos, 2002) and caring. Philanthropic responsibilities entail â€Å"giving back† time and money in the form of voluntary financial giving and service. However, Friedman (1996) as cited by Lantos (2002) famously argued that a corporation’s only social responsibility is its fiduciary duty to maximize shareholder wealth, while obeying the law and basic canons of ethics. Here, Friedman laid the groundwork for arguments against Carroll’s (2000) philanthropic responsibilities Lantos (2002) proposed that the confusion about the meaning and legitimacy of CSR could be clarified by suggesting three types of CSR, which are: Ethical CSR Altruistic CSR (Humanitarian CSR) Strategic CSR (Refer Appendix 3) Similarly, Lantos (2002) states that Ethical CSR is morally mandatory and goes beyond fulfilling a firm’s economic and legal obligations, to its ethical responsibilities to avoid harm or social injuries, even if the business might not appear to benefit from this. Hence, a corporation is morally responsible to any individual or group where it might inflict actual or potential injury from a particular course of action. Altruistic CSR relates to Corroll (2000)’s fourth type of CSR, Philanthropic Responsibility. These entail voluntarily â€Å"giving back† time and money to good works which contribute to the well-being of various societal stakeholders, even if this sacrifices part of the business’s profitability (no author, 2003). Philanthropic Responsibility- â€Å"giving back† time and money in the forms of voluntary service, voluntary association and voluntary giving – is where most of the controversy over the legitimacy of CSR lies. Lantos (2001) proposed that there are a number of arguments for Altruistic CSR. The most basic justification for humanitarian CSR is the social contract argument previously discussed. â€Å"Business is a major social institution that should bear the same kinds of citizenship costs for society that an individual citizen bears† (Davis, 1983) as cited by Lantos (2001). Furthermore, it is said that just as you and I have an obligation to take into consideration all of the parties that we directly and significantly affect, so too are businesses required to take into consideration all parties that they will affect. However, (no author, 2003) argues that from ethical perspective Altruistic CSR is immoral as it violates shareholder property rights, unjustly seizing stockholder wealth, and bestows benefits for the general welfare at the expenses of those for whom the firm should care in close relationships such as employees and customers. Furthermore, the author also states that corporation need not guiltily â€Å"give back† to society since a business pays taxes in return for any benefits it receives. Altruistic CSR, to me has a two face view as it may be unjust on one hand and at the same time it may do a great deed. However, I believe that no one is in the position to seize ones wealth and force one to sacrifice it. Strategic CSR is done to accomplish strategic business goals – good deeds are believed to be good for business as well as for society. With strategic CSR, corporations â€Å"give back† to their constituencies because they believe it to be in their best financial interests to do so. As cited by Lantos (2001) this is â€Å"philanthropy aligned with profit motives† (Quester and Thompson, 2001) – social goals might be profitable in the long run since market forces provide financial incentives for perceived socially responsible behavior. The greatest benefit of such activities to the firm lies in their marketing communications value and accrued goodwill among publics. Strategic CSR activity should improve corporate image and increase motivation and loyalty, primarily among employees and customers, but also with other key constituencies such as suppliers of marketing services and retailers. For instance, â€Å"socially responsible† firms like Ben & Jerry’s Homemade, Inc. , the Body Shop, and Tom’s of Maine have clearly benefited in immense goodwill from their good works, which means that, as Ben & Jerry’s mission statement tellingly reveals, â€Å"As we help others, we cannot help but help ourselves† (no author, 2003). Thus, corporations contribute to their constituencies not only because it is a kind and generous thing to do, but also because they believe it to be in their best financial interests to do so, thereby fulfilling their fiduciary responsibilities to the stockholders. Strategic CSR is moral and commendable because it benefits stockholders while helping other stakeholders. This not only minimizes harm to the firm’s image but also ensures that stockholders are not unknowingly fund activities that go against their own values. When volunteerism leads to higher employee morale and hence productivity gains, or contributes to the local community, gaining better quality recruits for the business, there is a â€Å"win-win† situation that benefits both the firm and its constituencies (no author, 2002). All the authors mentioned above have very strong point of view of their own, however I strongly be of the opinion that CSR would do best with just Ethical CSR and Strategic CSR, which cover a slight element of Philanthropic CSR. From my point of view Altruistic CSR is inequality to certain group that are closely related to the organization who practice it. 2. . 3 IMPORTANCE OF CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY It has been argued that all organization have an impact on society and the environment through their operations, products and services and through their interaction with key stakeholders and therefore CSR is important in all firms, large and small ( Williams, 2005; Hopkins, 2003) as cited by Sweeney (20 07). CSR is of relevance to a broader section of people than just stakeholders. It has political significance for governments of poorer and developing countries. Corporate conduct which is informed by CSR can, for example, contribute to the integration of foreign workers, o general education and training, employees’ retirement conditions and health benefits. CSR can also help governments address social and economic development needs in developing countries; it can help fight corruption and contribute to the implementation of human rights. Under these criteria, CSR can contribute in a major way to the welfare of their employees, and set examples for competing employers (Buhmann, 2006). Prout (2006) strongly believes that CSR plays a very important role in all organisations as CSR works ethically in many manner that brings benefits to all. According to Prout (2006) CSR is important as it is: Cost effective Reduce costumer’s risk and financial exposure and Gives firm a competitive advantage. He further states that, pollution prevention makes sense not because of end of pipe regulation, but because it has become cost effective approach to materials management. Product stewardship makes sense not because of waste disposal laws, but because it can reduce the customer’s risk and financial exposure. And the development and commercialization of clean technologies that reduce inputs as well as outputs makes sense because it can give one firm a competitive advantage. However, as argued by Moir (2001), CSR plays a part in solving social problems that arise in an organisation. He also further states that CSR would enhance reputation and greater employee loyalty and retention. The Commission of the European Communities (2002) as cited by (Jones et al . , 2005) argues that CSR has gained increasing recognition amongst companies as an important element in new and emerging forms of governance because it helps them to respond to a new set of fundamental changes in the overall business environment. These changes include globalisation and the responsibilities companies feel the need to address as they increasingly source products and services in developing countries; the issues of image and reputation, which have become increasingly important elements in corporate success; and the need for companies to recruit and retain highly skilled personnel. Girod and Bryane (2003) as cited by (Jones et al. , 2005) adopt a strategic marketing perspective arguing that CSR is â€Å"a key tool to create, develop and sustain differentiated brand names†. National and international governments have also been active in promoting CSR. Carlisle and Faulkner (2004) as cited by Sweeney (2007) has argued that SMEs are likely to experience a wide range of barriers including, a perception that CSR does not relate to SMEs and resource constraints such as financial, human and time limitations. Large firms tended to agree with this and argued that small firms, in comparison to themselves may lack resources such as finances, human resources or time to devote to CSR and this can act as a barrier preventing them from undertaking CSR. It was also mentioned from some large firm respondents that smaller firms may not feel CSR is an issue for smaller firms to concern themselves with and as such the main barrier may simple be a perception that there is no need for them to concern themselves with CSR (Sweeney, 2007). One of the main crucial barriers of CSR is corruption according to Lewicka-Strzalecka (2006), corruption is accompanied by economic stagnation and social decline. Therefore, it may be not ungrounded to suppose that there is a relation between the level of corruption in a country and social responsibility of companies of this country. Lewicka-Strzalecka (2006) believes that the high level of corruption discourages managers and businessmen from creating positive, long-standing relations with specific stakeholders, because the position of their companies is hardly dependant on their customers, employees, partners, and the local community. They are instead likely to get involved in corrupt deals with high-ranking state officials, in order to win tenders, ensure their access to the market, or get various licenses. Members of various social, consumers', and other non-governmental organisations use the resources assigned for social and ecological goals for their own private interest (Lewicka- Strzalecka, 2006). Lewicka- Strzalecka (2006) claims that one of the theoretical problems of CSR is the question of precisely defining a company's duties towards its stakeholders. The author then further states that if the demand towards business is specified too broadly, authorities and individuals feel exempted from their responsibility. One of the unintentional results of the CSR policy can be growing expectations from specific stakeholders, as well as indifference of the local and central government, which is only too glad to dispose of a part of its duties. When a company helps people in other than purely financial terms, it may be perceived as an example of paternalistic attitude towards the employees. For instance, dismissed employees think that the company would do better if it gave them specific sums of money instead of financing their outplacement, i. e. covering costs of training and providing psychological help (Lewicka- Strzalecka, 2006). Lewicka- Strzalecka (2006) also alleges that another of the results of CSR is the development of the welfare-state mentality. The author further explains it as; if a company voluntarily helps individuals or groups, after a certain time those groups can go on to regard it as something that is rightfully theirs, or even propose other demands. Systematic help may encourage acquired helplessness, damp entrepreneurship, and even establish a dependency between the business and those who could otherwise act on their own in the market or society 2. 3 BUSINESS ETHI*CS AND CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY IN BUSINESS MANAGEMENT It is extremely important for managers to behave in ways that are ethical and consider the greater good of the organisation and its employees. Since ethics plays a major role in business management future managers therefore need to be aware of the positive and negative implications with one’s behaviour and hence this will allow them to think about how ethical and unethical behaviour has future effects. One of the main rolesof business ethics in business management is for managers to act as a role model by demonstrating ethical behaviour in order to set a leading example for other employees to look upon (Duarte, 2008). Another role of Business Ethics in business management involves creating a competitive advantage by creating resources that are socially complex, difficult to imitate and pass through critical time dependent stages (Dierickx and Cool, 1989; Barney, 1991; Amit and Schoemaker, 1993) as cited by (Galbreath, 2009). Such resources can be created based on reputation and trust which is not so easily imitated by competitors (Fombrun and Shanley, 1990; Barney and Hansen, 1994) as cited by (Galbreath, 2009). Similarly, Jones (1995) as cited by (Galbreath, 2009) argues that firms who develop relationship with stakeholders based on honesty, trust and corporation are in a better position to gain an advantage over firms that do not. The reason being is that developing trust and corporation between stakeholders takes time, which in turn leads to mutually beneficial value exchanges which help gain advantages that lead to improved performance. Business ethics also plays a vital role in helping an organisation in creating a strong positive corporate image which is believed to be the foundation for building successful commercial relationships with different target publics. However, business ethics is also central in generating faith and trust between an organisation and its stakeholder (Papasolomou-Doukakis et al. , 2005). Furthermore, Chajet (1989) as cited by (Papasolomou-Doukakis_ et al_. 2005) postulates that a company with a good image can more easily attract audiences that influence the success of the organisation such as investors, partners, employees and customers. Therefore Business Ethics highly contributes to enhanced performance. CSR undeniably plays a very important role in Business Management. According to Moir (2001) CSR plays a major role in building a sustainable growth for business in a responsible manner. The author further states that CSR brings many forms of business benefits which include enhanced reput ation and greater loyalty and retention. Furthermore The World Business Council for Sustainable Development on CSR (WBCSD, 1999) as cited by (Moir, 2001) states that CSR plays a major role in controlling risk, identifying market opportunities, improving reputation and maintaining public support. Buhmann (2006), reports the example of international companies who are recruiting employees that might otherwise find it difficult to get employed; this includes the recruitment of immigrant, refugees and disable people. In such a scenario, CSR plays a leading role in achieving a profile of decency within communities, and can have the advantage of attracting goodwill from governments in their efforts to integrate migrant workers or refugees who would otherwise have to be supported out of public funds. Organisations firmly believe that long term economic viability is in the interest of all stakeholders and that by integrating CSR into their organisation, it will play a role of providing long term growth and financial security for those stakeholders and to aintain or enhance their market position for example health and safety at work, training and management development all help to promote stability, security and efficiency within the workforce (Jones et al. , 2005). CSR also plays a role of giving organisations a competitive advantage over their competitors. CSR can take form of taking care of employees by providing them with benefits which could be a source of competitive advantage (Smith, 2007). A c ompetitive advantage also depends on reputation as well as on people, products and prices. Therefore, an organisation’s position in the market place depends on its acting in a socially responsible manner and how socially responsible its publics perceive it to be (Papasolomou-Doukakis et al. , 2005). Lantos (2001) states that prior to the 1960s, business ethics was not a major concern of business people. Rather, it was left to theologians to discuss issues of fair wages, unfair labor practices, and the morality of capitalism. The Protestant work ethic taught people to work hard and be successful – this was the essence of business’ social responsibility. He also declares that, beginning in the 1960s ethical issues in business were raised on an unprecedented scale. Consequently, we heard consumer outcries against insensitive and immoral business practices. As a reaction to the negative publicity, by the mid-1970s, the concept of raising corporate USA’s consciousness was in vogue in both corporate boardrooms and college classrooms. The idea was that enterprises should not single-mindedly pursue profit without regard to morality. Thus, since the 1970s, society’s expectations of business ethics have been climbing. Unlike yesteryear, productivity alone is no longer considered sufficient morally to justify a business organization. Also important is how wealth generation affects non-economic aspects of society, such as the welfare of employees, customers, and other members of the business system, as well as other outside groups and the natural environment (Lantos, 2001). Here is where CSR comes in. As the finding of Kilcullen and Kooistra (1999) states that CSR have canteredon the long-term advantages of socially responsible behaviour, advantages such as greater customer and employee loyalty and a more supportive external environment. 3. CONCLUSION To understand CSR one must also understand Business Ethics. Organisations need to have a commitment to developing and maintaining an ethical organisational culture. This organisational culture is considered Social glue by Serpa (1985) as cited by (Wood and Rentschler, 2003), as it binds the organisation around its values, beliefs and ways in which it e stablishes and executes organisational practice. If CSR is practiced effectively, it can be extremely beneficial to an organisation by creating customer loyalty and also helps in gaining a competitive advantage. However, I disagree with Altruistic CSR as I feel it is immoral. I strongly contemplate that seizing one’s wealth for another is immoral and therefore Altruistic CSR is partially inequitable, in my point of view. Albeit the above, from my understanding I consider Business ethics and CSR to be about similar to one another. Reason being; when an organisation practices CSR, indirectly Business ethics is being practiced. This can be proven as CSR is practised with betterment of both the society and organisation in mind. Therefore, having in mind the interest of a party that may not matter to the organisation shows ethical responsibility which is a part of Business ethics. Hence CSR and Business Ethics are similar in their own manner. REFERENCE JOURNALS Amit, R. and Schoemaker, P. (1993), ‘Strategic assets and organisational rents’, _Journal of Strategic Management, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 33-47, as cited by Galbreath, J. (2009), ‘Building corporate social responsibility into strategy’, Journal of European Business Review_, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 109-127. Barney, J. B. and Hansen, M. (1994), ‘Trustworthiness as a source of competitive advantage’, _Journal of Strategic Management, Vol. 15, No special issue, pp. 175-190, as cited by Galbreath, J. 2009), ‘Building corporate social responsibility into strategy’, Journal of European Business Review_, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 109-127. Buhmann, K. (2006), ‘Corporate Social Responsibility: What role for law? Some aspects for law and CSR’, Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 188-202. Carlisle, Y. and Faulkner, D. (2004), ‘Corporate social responsibility: a stages framework’, Journal of European Business, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 143-152, as cited by Sweeney, L. (2007), ‘Corporate social responsibility in Ireland: barriers and opportunities experienced by SMEs when undertaking CSR’, Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 516-523. Chajet, C. (1989), ‘The making of a new corporate image’, Journal of Business Strategy, No. May/June, pp. 18-20, as cited by Papasolomou-Doukakis, I. , Krambia-Kapardis, M. , Katsioloudes, M. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility: the way forward? Maybe not! ’, Journal of European Business Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 263-279. Dierickx, I. and Cool, K. (1989), ‘Asset stock accumulation and sustainability of competitive advantage’, _Journal of Management Science, Vol. 35, No. 12, pp. 1504-1511, as cited by Galbreath, J. 2009), ‘Building corporate social responsibility into strategy’, Journal of European Business Review_, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 109-127. Duarte, F. (2008), ‘What we learn today is how we behave tomorrow: A study on students’ perceptions of ethics in management’, Journal of Social Responsibility, Vol. 4, No. 1/2, pp. 120-128. Fisher, J. (2003 ), ‘Surface and deep approaches to business ethics’, Journal of Leadership and Organization Development, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 96-101. Fombrun, C. and Shanley, M. (1990), ‘What’s in a name? Reputation building and corporate strategy’, Jounal_ of Management Academy, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 33-258, as cited by Galbreath, J. (2009), ‘Building corporate social responsibility into strategy’, Journal of European Business Review_, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 109-127. Frankental, P. (2001), ‘Corporate social responsibility – a PR invention’, Journal of Corporate Communications, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 18-23. Galbreath, J. (2009), ‘Building corporate social responsibility into strategy’,_ Journal of European Business Review_, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 109-127. Girod, S. and Bryane, M. (2003), ‘Branding in European retailing: a corporate social responsibility perspective’, Journal of European Retail Digest, Vol. 38, pp. 1-6, a s cited by Jones, P. Comfort, D. , Hillier, D. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility and the UK’s top ten retailers’, Journal of Retail and distribution Management, Vol. 33, No. 12, pp. 882-892. Holme, C. (2008), ‘Business ethics – Part 1: Does it matter? ’, Journal of Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 40, No. 5, pp. 248-252. Hurn, B. J. (2008), ‘Ethics in international business’, Journal of Industrial and Commercial training’ Vol. 40, No. 7, pp. 347-354. Jones, P. , Comfort, D. , Hillier, D. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility and the UK’s top ten retailers’, Journal of Retail and distribution Management, Vol. 33, No. 12, pp. 882-892. Jones, T. (1995), ‘Instrumental stakeholder theory: a synthesis of ethics and economics’, _Journal of Management Review, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 404-437, as cited by Galbreath, J. (2009), ‘Building corporate social responsibility into strategy’, Journal of European Business Review_, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 109-127. Kilcullen, M. and Kooistra, J. O. (1999), ‘At least do no harm: Sources on the changing role of business ethics and corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Reference Services, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 158-178. Lantos, G. P. (2001), ‘The boundaries of strategic corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 595-632. Lantos, G. P. (2002), ‘The ethicality of altruisic corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 205-232. Lewicka-Strzalecka, A. (2006), ‘Opportunities and limitations of CSR in the postcommunist countries: Polish caseâ€℠¢, Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 440-448. Moir, L. (2001), ‘What do we mean by corporate social responsibility? ’,_ Journal of Corporate governance_, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 16-22. No Author. (2003), ‘Corporate socialism unethically masquerades as CSR’, Journal of Strategic Direction, Vol. 19, No. 6, pp. 31-35. Orme, G. and Ashton, C. 2003), ‘Ethics – a foundation competency’, Journal of Industrial and Commercial Training, Vol. 35, No. 5, pp. 184-190. Papasolomou-Doukakis, I. , Krambia-Kapardis, M. , Katsioloudes, M. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility: the way forward? Maybe not! ’, Journal of European Business Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 263-279. Prout, J. (2006), ‘Corporate responsibility in the global economy: a business case’, Journal of Society and Business, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 184-191. Quester, P. G. and Thompson, B. (2001), ‘Advertising and promotion leverage on arts sponsorshi p effectiveness’, Journal of Advertising Research, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 33-47, as cited by Lantos, G. P. (2001), ‘The boundaries of strategic corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 595-632. Roberts, S. (2003), ‘Supply chain specific? Understanding the patchy success of ethical sourcing initiatives’, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 44, No. 2/3, pp. 159-170, Sweeney, L. (2007), ‘Corporate social responsibility in Ireland: barriers and opportunities experienced by SMEs when undertaking CSR’, Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 516-523. Serpa, R. 1985), ‘Creating a candid corporate culture’, Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 4, pp. 425-430. Smith, A. D. (2007), ‘Making the case for the competitive advantage of corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Business Strategy Series, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 186-195 Sweeney, L. (2007), ‘Corporate social respons ibility in Ireland: barriers and opportunities experienced by SMEs when undertaking CSR’, Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 516-523. Tresize, E. K. (1996), ‘An introduction to business ethics for human resource management teaching and research’, Journal of Personnel Review, Vol. 5, No. 6, pp. 85-89. Williams, A. (2005), ‘Consumer social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Policy, Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 34-35, Sweeney, L. (2007), ‘Corporate social responsibility in Ireland: barriers and opportunities experienced by SMEs when undertaking CSR’, Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 516-523. Wood, D. J. (1991), ‘Corporate social performance revisited’, _Journal of Management Review, Vol. 16, pp. 691-718, as cited by Moir, L. (2001), ‘What do we mean by corporate social responsibility? ’, Journal of Corporate governance_, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 16-22. Wood, G. and Rentschler, R. 2003), †˜Ethical behaviour: the means for creating and maintaining better reputations in arts organisations’, Journal of Management Decision, Vol. 41, No. 6, pp. 528-537. BOOKS Carroll, A. B. (2000), ‘The four faces of corporate citizenship’, McGraw-Hill, Guiltford, as cited by Lantos, G. P. (2002), ‘The ethicality of altruisic corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 205-232. Carroll, A. B. (2001), ‘Ethical challenges for business in the new millennium: Corporate social responsibility and models of management morality’, McGraw-Hill, Guilford, as cited by Lantos, G. P. (2001), ‘The boundaries of strategic corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 595-632. Cutlip, S. M. , Center, A. H. , Broom, G. M. (2000), ‘Effective Public Relations’, Prentice Hall, Saddle River, New Jersey, as cited by Papasolomou-Doukakis, I. , Krambia-Kapardis, M. , Katsioloudes, M. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility: the way forward? Maybe not! ’, Journal of European Business Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 263-279. Davies, K. (1983), ‘An expanded view of the social responsibility of business’, 2nd ed, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, as cited by Lantos, G. P. (2001), ‘The boundaries of strategic corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 18, No. 7, pp. 595-632. Friedman, M. (1996), ‘The social responsibility of business is to increase profits’, Zondervan Publishing House, Grand Rapids, as cited by Lantos, G. P. (2002), ‘The ethicality of altruisic corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 205-232. Hopkins, M. (2003), ‘The Planetary Bargain, Corporate Social Responsibility Matters’, Earthscan Publications Ltd, London, Sweeney, L. 2007), ‘Corporate social responsibility in Ireland: barriers and opportunities experienced by SMEs when undertaking CSR’, Journal of Corporate Governance, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 516-523. Mackiewicz, A. (1993), ‘Guide to Building a Global Image’, McGraw-Hill, New York, as cited by Papasolomou-Doukakis, I. , Krambia-Kapardis, M. , Katsioloudes, M. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility: the way forward? Maybe not! ’, Journal of European Business Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 263-279. Seitel, F. P. (2001), ‘The practice of public relations’, 8th ed, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, as cited by Papasolomou-Doukakis, I. Krambia-Kapardis, M. , Katsioloudes, M. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility: the way forward? Maybe not! ’, Journal of European Business Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 263-279. Smith, N. C. and Quelch, J. A. (1993), ‘Ethics in Marketing’, Irwin, Homewood, Illinois, as cited by Lantos, G. P. (2002), ‘The ethicality of altruisic corporate social responsibility’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, Vol. 19, No. 3, pp. 205-232. INTERNET ARTICLES Commission of the European Communities (2001), ‘Promoting a European framework for Corporate Social Responsibility’, available at: http://europa. u. int/eur-lex/en/comg pr/2001/com2001_0366en01. pdf , as cited by Jones, P. , Comfort, D. , Hillier, D. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility and the UK’s top ten retailers’, Journal of Retail and distribution Management, Vol. 33, No. 12, pp. 882-892. Commission of the European Communities (2002), ‘Communication from the Commission concerning Corporate Social Responsibility: A business contribution to sustainable development’, available at: http://europa. eu. int/comm? Employment_social/soc-dial/csr/csr2002_en. pdf, Jones, P. , Comfort, D. , Hillier, D. 2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility and the UK’s top ten retailers’, Journal of Retail and distribution Management, Vol. 33, No. 12, pp. 882-892. Confederation of British Industry (2001), ‘CBI response to the European commission green paper on: ‘promoting a European framework for corporate social responsibility’, available at: www. europa. eu. int/comm/employment_social/soc-dia l/csr/cbi_uk_en011219. htm, as cited by Jones, P. , Comfort, D. , Hillier, D. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility and the UK’s top ten retailers’, Journal of Retail and distribution Management, Vol. 33, No. 12, pp. 82-892. The World Bank Group (2004), ‘Corporate social responsibility’, available at: www. worldbank. org/development communications/where1/environment/csr. htm, as cited by Jones, P. , Comfort, D. , Hillier, D. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility and the UK’s top ten retailers’, Journal of Retail and distribution Management, Vol. 33, No. 12, pp. 882-892. CONFERENCE PAPERS Kitchen, P. J. , Schultz, D. E. (2002), ‘Managing reputation: global issues and problems’, paper presented at the 7th Annual Conference on Corporate and Marketing Communications, 29-30 April, as cited by Papasolomou-Doukakis, I. Krambia-Kapardis, M. , Katsioloudes, M. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility: the way forwa rd? Maybe not! ’, Journal of European Business Review, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 263-279. Poiesz, T. B. C. (1988), ‘The image concept: Its place in consumer psychology and its potential for other psychological area’, paper presented at the 24th International Congress of Psychology, Sydney, as cited by Papasolomou-Doukakis, I. , Krambia-Kapardis, M. , Katsioloudes, M. (2005), ‘Corporate social responsibility: the way forward? Maybe not! ’, Journal of European Business Review, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 263-279. To amass this literature review, the most applicable or significant source would be secondary sources as it is very reliable and valid. Although there are many secondary sources available but journals retrieved from emerald insight database are mostly used in this literature review. The reason being is that journals published in the site have been permitted by many other researchers who hold high ranks. The credibility of the journals used is also considered much higher because journals on emerald are reviewed before being published. However most of the journal authors hold high ranks in universities. For example, Geoffrey Lantos is a professor of Business Administration at Stonehill College, USA. Maureen Kilcullen is also an assistant professor at Kent University, USA. Lance Moir is a senior lecturer in Finance and Accounting at Cranfield School of Management. Moir also has a considerable amount of work experience as he was the Head of Corporate Finance and Planning at Storehouse plc from 1985 to 1990 and the director of Corporate Finance at Bass plc from 1991 to 1994. He is also the author of Managing Liquidity. Therefore, from their positions and experience, it can be seen that the authors are very well established in their qualification. All journals are also found to be very consistent, well presented with a valuable amount of information and include a good number of references. All the journals used in this literature do not have pre assumptions and are not biased. In addition, all these sources are up to date, considered to be reliable and valid and they have been picked from an authentic source. Appendix 2: Mind Map Appendix 3: Types of CSR {draw:frame} Source : Lantos (2001)

Psychoanalytic Theory Essay

Sigmund Freud has been one of the most prominent personalities in the field of psychology. He has contributed numerous theories in this particular field that are being studied and used even up to the present time. The most notable among his works are the personality theory, psychosexual stages of development, and defense mechanism. According to Sigmund Freud, personality is made up of three elements that he elaborated in his theory of personality. These elements are the id, the ego, and the superego, which collaborates together in order to form complex behaviors of human beings (Van Wagner, 2005). The id is an element of an individual’s personality that exists since birth. This component of personality is characterized by primitive behaviors that operate unconsciously through the person’s involuntary instincts. Id operates under the pleasure principle, which functions for the immediate satisfaction of needs and desires. The id is the cause of psychic energy and thus, it is considered as the main aspect of human personality (Van Wagner, 2005). The ego is the element of personality that focuses on reality. Ego is developed from the id, which makes sure that the primitive behaviors coming from the id can be shown in social acceptable behaviors that coincide with the real world. This operates under the reality principle because it sees to it that the instincts coming from the id is regulated so that it would be appropriate in the real world (Van Wagner, 2005). The superego is the last element of the personality theory to develop. This is the aspect of the personality theory that holds the moral values and standards of an individual. Superego represents the morals a person acquires from his/her parents and the society. This is also known as a person’s sense of right and wrong (Van Wagner, 2005). Freud believes that to be able to comprehend the adult behavior of a person, it is necessary to analyze his/her experience as a child. Due to this the psychosexual stages of development was created (Queen, 2001). The psychosexual stages are composed of the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. The oral stage takes place from birth to 18 months. It is linked with linked with the desire to â€Å"incorporate† objects in the mouth. This is followed by the anal stage that happen from 18 months to three years. The anal stage is when the child takes pleasure in defecation wherein his/her anus is considered as an erotogenic zone (â€Å"Freud’s Psychosexual Stages of Development†, 2004). Next, is the phallic stage where the individual moves satisfaction from the anus to the genitals at the age of three to seven. It is referred to as the phallic stage because as Freud argues it is the male organ which is important in this stage. Furthermore, the individual takes on the latent period where sexual concerns are still considered but this is in accordance with the society he/she moves in which occurs from seven to twelve years of age. Lastly, the genital period, which occurs from twelve years to adulthood and is the time when attraction towards the opposite sex is developed. As stages are completed the person could balance different aspects of life (Quigley, 1998). There are eight defense mechanisms that are proposed by Freud. These are sublimation, repression, denial, projection, reaction formation, isolation, regression, and defense against effect (Hentschel et al. , 2004). The discussions made above concerns the psychoanalytic theory of Sigmund Freud. More specifically the parts of personality, the psychosexual stages of development, and defense mechanisms were presented.